Table of Content

12 September 2025, Volume 56 Issue 9

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REFINING TITANIUM-BASED HYDROGEN STORAGE ALLOYS WITH MECHANICAL BALL MILLING METHOD

2025, 56(9):  1-9. 

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To address low hydrogen storage capacity, compositional heterogeneity, and oxidation vulnerability in traditional titanium-based hydrogen storage alloys (TM), mechanical ball milling was used to introduce Co, Ni, V, Cu, and Mg for modification. Multimodal characterizations,including SEM-EDX for microstructure, XRD for phase analysis, ICP for quantificationand XPS for chemical state identification,were combined with hydrogen storage kinetics and oxygen poisoning tests. Results showed that V significantly enhanced maximum hydrogen storage capacity (w) from 1.70% to 2.15%, Co modification accelerated hydrogen absorption kinetics, increasing 30-min storage from 1.67% to 1.71%. Critically, Co addition improved oxygen poisoning resistance: the decline rate of post-oxidation storage capacity dropped from 41.8% to 1.74%. Microstructural analysis revealed that Co preferentially localized at the surface layer, where it formed a dense oxide barrier. This dual role—sacrificial oxidation of Co instead of active sites and physical inhibition of oxygen diffusion—protected bulk hydrogen storage functionality. These findings highlight element-specific modifications as an effective strategy to optimize both storage capacity and oxidative stability in TM alloys.

CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF PROCESS MODELS FOR PREPARATION OF PSEUDO-BOEHMITE AND γ-Al₂O₃

2025, 56(9):  10-19. 

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Based on the dataset of the hydrolysis process for preparing pseudo-boehmite and γ-Al₂O₃ from aluminum alkoxide, segmented linear regression models were constructed to link the preparation conditions with the pore volume and specific surface area of pseudo-boehmite and γ-Al₂O₃, and the optimal model structures were determined. The adjusted coefficient of determination(R²) of all models were satisfactory, and all models passed the Davies significancetest for segmented variables. This indicates that, while maintaining model simplicity, segmented linear regression models can provide high fitting accuracy, reasonable complexity, and strong stability, effectively revealing the complex intrinsic relationships between preparation parameters and the physicochemical properties of the products. Validation results showed that the maximum relative error in predicting the pore volume and specific surface area of pseudo-boehmite and γ-Al₂O₃ under known preparation conditions was no more than 4.80%. The models developed in this study have high precision and can be used to guide the design of preparation conditions and predict the physicochemical properties of pseudo-boehmite and γ-Al₂O₃, providing significant guidance for the precise control of their physicochemical properties.

STUDY ON BTX PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION IN NON-HYDROGENATION CRACKING PROCESS OF HEAVY AROMATICS

2025, 56(9):  20-25. 

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In order to explore the method of increasing the flexibility of heavy aromatics cracking technology, the distribution of BTX during the cracking reaction of heavy aromatics was studied. The results indicated that the proportions of benzene, toluene and xylene were affected by the pore structure of catalysts, reaction conditions and feed composition. ZSM-5zeolite based catalyst tended to produce more benzene and toluene, while Y zeolite based catalyst tended to more xylene. The reaction conditions had a great influence on the proportions of benzene, toluene and xylene in BTX, and the proportions of toluene and benzene can be increased by increasing the reaction temperature or catalyst activity. The composition of feeds affected the proportion of benzene, toluene and xylene in BTX product. When the feed contained a higher proportion of trimethyl-benzene, the xylene proportion in BTX product was higher, and the higher the methyl ethylbenzene in the feed was, the higher the toluene in BTX was. The pore structure of catalysts also affected the distribution of xylene isomers, but the reaction conditions and the composition of feeds had little effect on the proportions of xylene isomers.

CARBON DIOXIDE ADSORPTION AND SEPARATION PERFORMANCE OF BROMINE-FUNCTIONALIZED MICROPOROUS MATERIAL

2025, 56(9):  26-33. 

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Based on the mixed ligand strategy, a bromine-functionalized composite material was synthesized by the reaction of 5-bromoisophthalic acid, 4,4'-bipyridine, and zinc nitrate under solvothermal conditions. The material was characterized using X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results showed that the prepared material exhibited good hydrothermal stability and possessed a microporous structure with a most probable pore diameter of 0.35 nm. Compared to C₂H₂,CH₄,CO,N₂, it exhibited significantly better adsorption capacity for CO₂, enabling effective separation of CO₂ from other gases. At 273 K and 100 kPa, the adsorption capacity of the material for CO₂ was 48.901 cm³/g. Density functional theory calculations further revealed the mechanism of action of -Br on CO₂ and its synergistic effect with hydrogen bonding.

GAS-LIQUID BIPHASE C₈ AROMATICS ISOMERIZATION TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION EVALUATION

2025, 56(9):  34-41. 

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The processing capacity of C₈ aromatics (mixture of xylene and ethylbenzene) in gas phase isomerization unit and liquid phase isomerization unit and the scale of corresponding separation unit under different working conditions were compared and analyzed by means of material balance method. The results show that the problem of low conversion of ethylbenzene in liquid phase is solved by the parallel process of gas and liquid phase isomerization, and the overall technical economy of isomerization unit is improved. Moreover, in the combined process of gas and liquid phase isomerization, the isomerization rate of liquid phase isomerization catalyst and the conversion of ethylbenzene of gas phase isomerization unit can be adjusted by reaction temperature and pressure, and the content of each component in the xylene circuit can be adjusted to meet the diversified production needs of chemicals.

RESEARCH ON PETROLEUM COKE PRODUCTION FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ANODES VIA DELAYED COKING PROCESS

2025, 56(9):  42-48. 

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Low-sulfur petroleum coke serves as the core raw material for producing artificial graphite anode materials. With the growth in demand for lithium-ion batteries, the value of low-sulfur petroleum coke for lithium-ion battery anodes has become increasingly evident.Using vacuum residue and deoiled asphalt from a certain petrochemical enterprise as raw materials, four types of petroleum coke were produced by adjusting the raw material ratios.The effects of raw material composition on petroleum coke yield, microstructure, graphitization performance, and the electrical properties of theanode materials were investigated. The results showed that as the content of aromatics and resins in the raw materials increased, the yields of coker gas oil and petroleum coke also increased, while the yields of gasoline and diesel slightly decreased. The composition of the raw materials had a significant impact on the microstructure of the petroleum coke products. When the resin content in the raw materials increased from 23.68% to 48.61%, the content of mosaic structures in the petroleum coke increased from 36.2% to 67.2%, and a small amount of isotropic structures appeared, which was unfavorable for the graphitization of the petroleum coke. Electrical performance tests were conducted on the anode materials obtained after graphitizing the four types of petroleum coke. It was found that material B, produced from petroleum coke B, exhibited the best overall performance, with a capacity of 341.35 (mA.h)/g, a first-cycle efficiency of 94.42%, and a capacity retention rate of 95.2% after 800 cycles at a 1 C discharge rate at 45 ℃. Petroleum coke B can be used to produce lithium-ion battery anode materials with good cycling performance and high capacity.

RESEARCH ON ELECTRIC FIELD ENHANCED SOLVENT DEASPHALTING TECHNOLOGY FOR RESIDUAL OIL

2025, 56(9):  49-53. 

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The enhancement of the deasphalting process for vacuum residue was investigated by applying an electric field. A vacuum residue sample was selected, and the effects of electric field intensity on the deasphalting process were studied under the conditions of a sedimentation time of 0.5—4 h and a solvent-to-residue mass ratio of 1—4. The results show that, in the absence of an electric field, increasing sedimentation time and solvent-to-residue mass ratio improves the asphaltene removal ratio, deoiled asphalt yield, and asphaltene content in the deoiled asphalt. Applying the electric field further enhances separation efficiency and reduces solvent consumption. At the maximum asphaltene removal ratio, the electric field shortens sedimentation time from 3 h to less than 1 h and increases the asphaltene removal ratio by approximately 12 percentage points. Additionally, under a fixed sedimentation time of 1 h and comparable asphaltene removal ratios, the electric field significantly reduces solvent usage.

ANALYSIS OF REFORMING FEEDSTOCK CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPLORATION OF OPTIMIZATION STRATEGIES

2025, 56(9):  54-58. 

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The differential distribution of reforming raw materials has multiple impacts on the reforming reaction.This paper thoroughly analyzes the compositional characteristics and current-situation differences of alkanes, naphthenes,aromatics,etc.in the CCR feedstock, as well as the changes in the conversion rates of various hydrocarbons in the reforming reaction and their impacts on the main products. Based on this, optimization suggestions such as cutting heavy naphtha, reducing the contents of C₆ and C₁₁+, and controlling the product quality of light naphtha and heavy naphtha are put forward. Through simulation calculation, by optimizing the reforming mixed feedstock, reducing the ineffective components in the feedstock, and eliminating the operation bottleneck of the unit, it provides data support and engineering reference for the feedstock optimization of similar units, helping refining and chemical enterprises to improve quality and efficiency and achieve low-carbon transformation.

SYNTHESIS AND PERFORMANCE STUDY OF SATURATED MONOESTER-TYPE LUBRICITY ADDITIVES FOR ULTRA-LOW SULFUR DIESEL FUELS

2025, 56(9):  59-67. 

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Using various saturated dicarboxylic acids (anhydrides) and alcohols as raw materials, a series of saturated dicarboxylic acid monoester compounds were synthesized through esterification. An optimal saturated dicarboxylic acid monoester-type lubricity additive compound was selected, which has a low freezing point and exhibits good anti-wear performance in diesel fuel. Ultimately, monoisoalcohol ester of succinic acid was screened out. Preferably, monoisononyl succinate, when added to ultra-low sulfur diesel at a dosage of 200 μg/g, can significantly enhance the lubricating performance of the diesel, reducing the WS1.4 value from 646μm to 281μm. This new lubricity additive has a freezing point as low as -50°C, showing potential for application in low-temperature environments.

RESEARCH ON FRICTION REDUCTION PERFORMANCE OF DIESEL ENGINE OIL WITH GRAPHENE ADDITIVES

2025, 56(9):  68-73. 

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The microstructure and morphology of graphene A produced by arc method andgraphene B produced by redox methodwere characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and other methods to investigate the effect of two graphene as additives on the anti friction and anti-wear properties of heavy-duty diesel engine oil CK-4 15W-40. Using a four stroke diesel engine bench test to evaluate the improvement effect of adding graphene on fuel economy of oil products. The results of the four ball machine friction test showed that the introduction of both graphene can achieve anti friction and anti-wear effects. After adding graphene A, the wear spot diameter decreased by 20.89% and the friction coefficient decreased by 35.58%; After adding graphene B, the wear spot diameter decreased by 13.08% and the friction coefficient decreased by 19.23%. The fuel economy evaluation results showed that adding graphene A to heavy-duty diesel engine oil under high-speed conditions can reduce the effective fuel consumption rate by 1.0% to 2.5%.

OPTIMIZATIONOFYIELD FOR ANOLEFINCATALYTICCRACKINGUNITBASEDONDATA-DRIVEN MODEL

2025, 56(9):  74-81. 

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In order to improve the yield of propylene and ethylene in the olefin catalytic cracking (OCC) unit, based on the collection of industrial data from a 100 kt/a OCC unit of a domestic enterprise, 835 sets of data samples were obtained through data preprocessing. 13 input feature variables were selected using the maximum mutual information coefficient and Pearson correlation coefficient methods. With the yield of diene (propylene and ethylene) as the target variable, BPNN and XGBoost methods were used to establish XGBoost and BPNN classification prediction models with a structure of 13-64-13-1, respectively. Comparing the classification prediction results of the two models, it was found that the BPNN model had a better overall prediction performance; Furthermore, by combining genetic algorithm to optimize the operating variables of the BPNN model, it was found that after optimizing the operating variables, the model's predicted diene yield increased by an average of 2.8 percentage points. This indicates that the established BPNN model can provide guidance for optimizing the operation of OCC industrial facilities.

GASOLINE YIELD PREDICTION STUDY OF CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT BASED ON DMOA-BP NEURAL NETWORK

2025, 56(9):  82-88. 

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Catalytic cracking is a key process for converting heavy oil to lighter fractions in petroleum refining, and establishing a product prediction model for a catalytic cracking unit facilitates process optimization and the development of smart refineries. In response to the intelligent construction requirements of a domestic refinery,a gasoline yield prediction model for a catalytic cracking unit based on an optimized BP neural network was proposed. Through data cleaning and maximum information coefficient analysis, 12 input variables highly correlated with gasoline yield were selected from the original 30 variables, achieving a 60% dimensionality reduction. On this basis, 6 intelligent optimization algorithms were employed to optimize the initial weights and thresholds of a BP neural network with a 12-8-1 structure, and the predictive performance of the model was compared under different optimization algorithms. The results show that the BP neural network optimized by the dwarf mongoose optimization algorithm (DMOA-BP) yields the best prediction accuracy, with its mean absolute error, mean square error, and mean absolute percentage error all significantly lower than those of the other algorithms. Moreover, the average coefficient of determination (R²) over fourfold cross-validation reached 0.9889. Therefore, DMOA-BP was selected as the gasoline yield prediction model for the catalytic cracking unit, providing a high-accuracy, low-complexity prediction tool for intelligent production in refineries and offering valuable guidance for the optimized operation of catalytic cracking units.

CONTROLLING OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONTENT IN THE TAIL GAS FROM DESULFURIZATION ZONE FOR DRY GAS BY DATA MINING TECHNIQUES

2025, 56(9):  89-98. 

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Hydrogen sulfide concentration of the tail gas from the methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) desulfurization zone for dry gas from fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit must be controlled below 10 μg/g. Based on the 705 sets of historical data from the dry gas desulfurization zone in the FCC unit of a petrochemical enterprise,25 modeling variables were screened from 44 variables by the maximum mutual information coefficient and Pearson correlation coefficient methods,transforming hydrogen sulfide concentration in the tail gas into a classification problem as the target variable. An XGBoost and a DNN binary classification models for predicting target variable were established respectively. The evaluation results of the DNN model are better than that of XGBoost,particularly in the accuracy of classifying substandard samples and the stability of handling complex problems. Combiningthe DNN model with the Genetic Algorithm, the operating variables in thesubstandard samples from the test set were optimized to achieve the standard. Therefore, the DNN model can provide guidance tooptimize the operation of MDEA desulfurization zone in FCC unit.

SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION-STABILIZATION SYSTEM IN CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT

2025, 56(9):  99-105. 

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The full process simulation of the 2 Mt/a catalytic cracking unit's fractionation and absorption-stabilization system at a certain refinery was conducted using Aspen Plus, and the process parameters of the distillation and absorption-stabilization system were optimized using sensitivity analysis methods. In the distillation system, by adjusting the top circulation and the first middle circulation, the quality of gasoline and diesel was improved, while the high-temperature heat extraction ratio increased by 5.26 percentage points, which can be used to generate high-temperature steam; in the absorption-stabilization system, the focus was on examining the impact of the feed position of the crude gasoline in the absorption tower, the liquid-gas ratio in the absorption tower, the return position of the rich absorption oil to the distillation tower, the feed position of the stabilization tower, and the reflux ratio on product quality. Through parameter simulation optimization, the product quality was significantly improved. Specifically, the volume fraction of C₃+ in dry gasdecreased by 54.3%, the volume fraction of (C₂+C₅)in liquefied gasdecreased by 7.5%, and the mass fraction of (C₃+C₄)in stabilized gasoline decreased by 43.2%.

STUDY ON EFFECT OF GASOLINE DETERGENTS ON FUEL SAVE AND EMISSION REDUCTION OF IN-USE VEHICLES

2025, 56(9):  106-113. 

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Vehicle exhaust emissions are one of the critical factors in atmospheric pollution, particularly affecting haze and photochemical smog. Gasoline detergents are effective in removing engine carbon deposits, but research on their influence on fuel efficiency and exhaust emissions remains insufficient. This study investigates the effects of three mainstream detergents on cold-start exhaust pollutants before and after carbon deposit removal with representative in-use vehicles. The results indicate that detergents can significantly reduce engine carbon deposits, thereby decreasing carbon emissions. At normal temperatures, the use of detergents led to average reductions of 5.98%, 8.74%, and 14.13% in total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) emissions, respectively. Particulate matter (PM) mass and number (PN) emissions decreased by 32.41% and 29.89%, respectively, and fuel consumption was reduced by 3.29%. After carbon deposits were removed by detergent, the emissions of THC, CO, and NO_x decreased by 23.72%, 31.43%, and 34.04%, respectively, under ultra-high-speed conditions in the worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle (WLTC). Additionally, using detergents significantly reduced THC, CO emissions during vehicle cold starts and rapid acceleration.

THE EFFECT OF GASOLINE OLEFIN CONTENT ON AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CHARACTERISTIC AT DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE

2025, 56(9):  114-120. 

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Hydrocarbon emissions from motor vehicles are a significant source of urban VOCs pollution, and the quality of automotive gasoline plays a crucial role in determining the emission levels of motor vehicles. In this study, five light-duty gasoline vehicles that meet the China Ⅵemission standard were selected, and two test fuels with varying olefin contents were utilized to investigate the influence of gasoline olefin content on automobile gaseous pollutants and particulate matter. This was accomplished through the Type I normal-temperature test and the Type Ⅵ low-temperature test. The results indicate that under the WLTC conditions, reducing the olefin content of gasoline from 13.4% to 9.1% leads to a decrease in gaseous pollutants, specifically CO, THC, and NO_x emissions at normal temperature. This trend is particularly pronounced in urban road conditions, where the reductions in THC and CO emissions are more significant. Additionally, particulate matter emissions are also slightly reduced. At lower temperatures, CO and THC emissions continue to show a decreasing trend; however, there is no obvious pattern in the changes of NO_x emissions. These findings demonstrate that lowering the olefin content of gasoline can significantly reduce gaseous pollutant emissions across various ambient temperatures, especially in urban road conditions. This study provides crucial support for optimizing gasoline composition and mitigating automobile emissions.

RAPID IDENTIFICATION OF ACTIVE COMPONENTS TYPES OF GASOLINE DETERGENTS BASED ON THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY AND NINHYDRIN REACTION

2025, 56(9):  121-126. 

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A rapid determination method based on thin-layer chromatography and ninhydrin reaction was developed to standardize the market order of gasoline detergents and identify the product quality and composition types of active components on the market. Firstly, ninhydrin was used as a chromogenic reagent to react with detergent on a silica plate, and the concentration detection limit and optimal concentration range of different active components were given. Then, the identification methods of single composition and multi-composition were developed based on the polarity and solubility characteristics of the three active components. Finally, this method was used to analyze 6 kinds of detergent products on the market, and 3 kinds of products were identified as unqualified. Other products were classified and identified, and the identification results were consistent with the results of mass spectrometry analysis. In summary, this method has the advantages of good separation, simple operation, fast detection speed, no need for complex instruments, and visual observation, which can meet the current requirements.

ANALYSIS OF COLORATION CAUSES IN 1-METHYLNAPHATHALENE REAGENT AND ITS EFFECT ON HYDROTREATING PERFORMANCE OVER NiMo/Al2O3 CATALYST

2025, 56(9):  127-133. 

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To investigate the causes of coloration in 1-methylnaphthalene reagent and its effect on the evaluation of the hydrotreating performance over NiMo/Al₂O₃ catalyst, characterization was conducted using multiple instrumental analytical methods, including inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, gas chromatography with sulfur and nitrogen chemiluminescence detectors. The results demonstrated that compared to colorless 1-methylnaphthalene reagent, the brownish-yellow 1-methylnaphthalene reagent contained sulfur-containing compounds such as C₁-benzothiophene, as well as nitrogen-containing compounds including quinoline, isoquinoline, C₁-quinoline, and others. The coexistence of these sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds with 1-methylnaphthalene resulted in its brownish-yellow coloration. When evaluating hydrotreating performance of NiMo/Al₂O₃ catalyst using reaction oil formulated with brownish-yellow 1-methylnaphthalene reagent, the conversion rate of 1-methylnaphthalene significantly decreased due to competitive adsorption by sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds, particularly the strong inhibitory effect of nitrogen-containing compounds on the hydrogenation of 1-methylnaphthalene. As the reaction temperature increased, the product color gradually transitioned to light brown, whereas the samples derived from reaction oil formulated with colorless 1-methylnaphthalene remained colorless at all tested temperatures. It indicates that the coexistence of sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds with 1-methylnaphthalene leads to brownish-yellow coloration as their concentrations increase. Therefore, it is imperative to thoroughly account for color variations in chemical reagents and the uncertainties they might introduce to catalyst performance evaluations.

RESEARCH ON THE DETERMINATION METHOD OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM IN ORGANIC CHROMIUM CATALYSTS

2025, 56(9):  134-140. 

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The primary catalyst for the oligomerization of ethylene to synthesize α-olefins is an organic trivalent chromium [Cr(Ⅲ)] compound. Due to incomplete purification of raw materials, hexavalent chromium [Cr(Ⅵ)] impurities are present in the catalyst system. Excessive Cr(Ⅵ) content can disrupt the production process, reduce product yield, and cause environmental pollution. Therefore, accurately determining the Cr(Ⅵ) content is crucial for the production process.A method for detecting Cr(Ⅵ) in organic chromium catalysts was developed. Under conditions of 80–95 ℃, 2 mL of 70% (by mass fraction) sulfuric acid is used for low-temperature digestion of the organic chromium catalyst sample. In an acidic environment, Cr(Ⅵ) first undergoes a color-developing reaction with the chromogenic reagent diphenylcarbazide and then forms a complex with p-toluenesulfonic acid. Isopentyl alcohol is employed to extract Cr(Ⅵ) into the organic phase, and finally, the content of Cr(Ⅵ) is determined using spectrophotometry. The results indicate that after color development and extraction, Cr(Ⅵ) exhibits a maximum absorption peak at a wavelength of 540 nm. The optimal extraction and separation conditions for Cr(Ⅵ) are achieved with a chromogenic reagent dosage of 1 mL, a complexing agent dosage of 2 mL, an extractant dosage of 20 mL, a color development time of 5 min, and an extraction time of 20 min. The detection limit of this method for organic chromium samples is 1.000 μg/g (based on the mass of Cr element). When the mass of Cr(Ⅵ) in the tested sample ranges from 0 to 1.0 μg, the correlation coefficient of the working curve is greater than 0.999, the relative standard deviation of test results is less than 5%, and the spike recovery rate is 95%–105%.

PROGRESS OF HYDROGEN SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION IN REFINERIES

2025, 56(9):  141-148. 

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Hydrogen is recognized as both a critical feedstock and a major cost component in petrochemical production. Optimization of hydrogen systems is essential for energy efficiency and cost reduction.The development of hydrogen system optimization technologies is reviewed, with focus on hydrogen pinch technology and mathematical programming methods. Hydrogen pinch technology has evolved from single-component impurity analysis to multi-component analysis,and graphical pinch analysis methods were subsequently established.Mathematical programming approaches are evolving to encompass multi-component impurity analysis and uncertainty modeling frameworks, the application scope and research depth are constantly expanding. Combining the development trends of the two methods, future research should prioritize integrating hydrogen network optimization with rigorous hydrogenation unit simulations and developing hybrid methodologies that combine pinch analysis with mathematical programming, in order to achieve rational optimization of hydrogen systems in refining enterprises.

RESEARCH PROGRESS ON THE RESOURCE UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES OF WASTE FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING CATALYSTS

2025, 56(9):  149-158. 

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Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is one of the critical processes in petroleum refining, and the resource utilization of waste FCC catalysts has emerged as a pressing challenge requiring urgent resolution. The sources and formation mechanisms of waste FCC catalysts are systematically reviewed, the key advantages and technical bottlenecks of regeneration and resource utilization technologies are analyzed, and the future research directions and application prospects are discussed. Considering the development trends in resource utilization and harmless treatment of waste catalysts, it is proposed that future efforts should prioritize the development of high-efficiency regeneration technologies, explore green and low-carbon pathways for resource recovery, and strengthen the synergistic integration of cascade regeneration and resource utilization. These strategies aim to achieve large-scale, low-impact, and high-value applications of waste catalysts.